Christian moral life is often said to be wildly unrealistic: not really possible for people like us with the everyday pressures we face and the difficult commitments we have. People often talk of ‘morality’ as if it is a slightly boring and rather mysterious matter; all about facing up to shameful, secret vices and trying—often not very hard or very successfully—to overcome them. None of this is true. ‘Morality’ is simply a rather grand term for discovering what choices will make us truly happy and making a good attempt to live by them. There is no list or rule-book somewhere with a table headed ‘How To Be Moral’; there is simply the fact that all folk are engaged in a life-long effort, in the face of all sorts of pressures and personal failures, to grasp how to choose so as to achieve real happiness or fulfilment for ourselves and those dear to us. And though this effort is very difficult, it is not impossible. Living morally is not just for saints and do-gooders: everyone has a real chance for happiness and fulfilment, so morality is possible even for the simplest—and the vilest—of people.
Being human is being a free, thinking and loving creature. Human beings operate by reasoning about their problems and this includes reasoning about moral problems. Moral reasoning is just the attempt to discern what will achieve a fully human life and how I might best go about getting this. Moral philosophers and moral theologians are among those with important insights into strategies and techniques for good moral reasoning; but it should be remembered these are not experts prescribing how we must think but people who try to understand how good folk do think, to clarify and explain this and to communicate it to others.
Usually we turn to moral reasoning when we face a moral dilemma. These occur regularly, often frighteningly regularly (Do I tell my friend her boyfriend is seeing someone behind her back? Do I tell the parents their child is using the contraceptive pill? Do I respect my adolescent’s freedom to sleep over with his girlfriend or insist on his following Church teaching? Do I tell the lie my employer / colleague asks me to or do I make this a resignation issue? etc.). These are appallingly difficult issues but there is always an answer: it may well be a sad and difficult answer but there is always a right decision to be made. God does not put us in positions where we are ‘damned if we do and damned if we don’t’. That will never happen. So how do we set about dealing with moral dilemmas?
First, recall that from time to time we will find ourselves in situations where factors (external or internal) mean we are literally incapable of choosing or of making a good choice. These factors include ignorance of relevant information, coercion by others, neuroses, compulsions, obsessions, intoxication, extreme exhaustion, distress, provocation etc. Often this means we are genuinely not responsible for failing to choose or for making a bad choice. However, educators must be aware people sometimes plead these factors falsely and unfairly thus ‘getting themselves off the hook’. Also, sometimes ignorance, intoxication etc. is deliberate and wilful, or the person has been seriously negligent. Here, there may actually be moral responsibility and a case to answer.
But let us assume the person is not suffering from any of these factors but is responsible for her conduct. Let us assume too that she realises there is no substitute for some hard thinking here: we cannot simply open the Bible randomly and pick out an answer, put the responsibility onto someone else, ask how much we can get away with, toss a coin, look inside ourselves and follow our strongest feelings (certainly not that: the stronger the feelings, the more danger we are just doing what we want to!). How can we hope to guide young people’s moral reasoning? Here are some pointers which may be worth following—but once again, this is no ‘rule book’ of morals’. Different people in different situations will quite rightly emphasise one step more than another and all of us come to discover these steps gradually as we mature, and fall, and pick ourselves up, and fall again….
First, in the white heat of a real dilemma there are pressures of conflicting wants and duties, loyalties to different people and beliefs, time pressures and often serious psychological distress. In this state it is easy to overlook relevant facts and other possible alternatives. Many problems become easier to solve if we get accurate scientific, medical or personal facts. In the grip of distress we can become fixated on two choices and overlook the fact there are other alternatives. It is easy too to clutch our dilemmas, sometimes over-dramatising them, and become convinced we are trapped. There is always a way out—though we may need help, peace of mind, a break, hard study to identify it. There is no speedy way to reason morally; we need to slow down and re-trace our steps.
Secondly, consider the moral implications of the situation. Often one of my options will not actually achieve anything humanly good for anyone: it may simply be a matter of my self-gratification, or weakly conforming to peer or institutional pressure or just taking an easy way out. What important values are at stake in each option (fairness, truth-telling, courage, witness, promise-keeping, self-respect, friendship?). Am I directly aiming at undermining some important human value in either option? Would good moral thinkers I know or have read think my ‘ends’ or purposes here are morally acceptable, and are the means I am considering taking to these ends all morally acceptable? If I am not sure, whom should I consult? Moral philosophers and theologians have articulated excellent theories of human ‘goods’ and ‘virtues’ and their relations to real happiness and fulfilment. Have I read and studied enough? Do I need to find out some more about good moral thinking?
Thirdly, consider the likely good and bad effects of the courses of action I am considering. Sometimes we are right to make choices that have bad effects on ourselves or others (and sometimes we are even required to make them) but this demands very serious thinking beforehand. Would it be good for me to permit these bad effects? Might it corrupt me, change me for the worse, incline me to do wrong in the future? And is permitting these bad effects fair to others in this situation? Of course they will not like it; but it may still be fair to ask them to bear it. Or is it unfair? How would choosing this thing fit with my well-chosen long-term goals and commitments? Does it reflect my life plans, my vocation, my special responsibilities to and for others?
Fourthly, ask which moral norms are relevant to my situation. Much of ethics involves considering and applying important norms of moral conduct. It is not enough just to know some human ‘goods’ or values: moral educators must also be competent in the use of the principles and norms which guide us as to how reasonably to pursue these values in the here and now. The greatest teachers in the tradition teach that the fundamental norm is ‘avoid evil; do good’ but of course this must be broken down into many more digestible parts. Some ‘positive norms’ (those which tell us what to do) are quite obvious, based as they are in Scripture, philosophy and common sense: ‘serve others as your moral equals’, ‘teach truth and never lie’, ‘love genuinely and not sentimentally’, ‘do to others as you would have done to you’, ‘give to the poor’ etc. Other norms are ‘negative’ (those which tell us what not to do),. Many of these are ‘absolute’ or ‘exceptionless’, there is never a good reason for breaking them: ‘do not have sex outside marriage’, ‘do not kill the innocent’, ‘tell no lies’, ‘do not do evil to achieve even great good’ etc. Once we have identified the relevant moral norms we might be able to identify certain courses of action as not ethical options for us, not open for our consideration, however attractive they may be.
Fifthly, ask what a truly virtuous person would do in my circumstances. What would those whose characters I most admire do? What would Christ and the saints do? This requires imagination but (especially when we are young) we have imagination and we should use it. These people may seem high above us—and they are! But everyone, under grace, is capable of much more than they believe they are. Sometimes we are called to extraordinary moral heroism and to the suffering that goes along with it. It should not be underestimated, whether it is in the playground or on the Cross, but sometimes it is right to bear it.
Sixthly, if we are still confused, we might now properly ask how we feel about our options? What is it about each that attracts and repels me? Are my feelings here feelings I would happily own up to and wish to defend or are they partial, narrow, self-interested, shameful? Part of good moral reasoning is realising the importance of feelings—what they reveal about where our heart really lies, whichever values we pay lip-service to. Once we are more aware of our feelings and real motives, we can think some more about whether we are being weak or plain indulgent here, or do our feelings reveal important truths about what we hold dear, truths we should acknowledge and respond to? We cannot just ‘do what we feel like’ but if our reasoning so far has ruled out neither option, what we feel like may well guide us to a better knowledge of what is at stake.
If we have gone through moral reasoning of (more or less) the above sort, and we still are undecided, it is probably necessary now to choose and to act. If the matter is serious, we must avoid obsessive thought and mental and moral paralysis and actually choose one way or the other. Here, we should review all our thinking to date—bearing in mind the need to ensure we are challenging ourselves and not just rationalising our secret wishes or fears. We can then take final counsel from those authorities we most respect—bearing in mind the need for great humility before those wiser than us, the best teachers, and of course the teaching of the Church, whether we find it hard or liberating in the present circumstances. Finally, we should rest if possible, and then pray. After that, we should make our choice and act.
The basic structures of moral reasoning—end or purpose, wish, deliberation, choice, action—and the moral concepts necessary for good moral reasoning—human goods, moral principles and norms, virtues and human fullfilment are clarified by many excellent philosophers and theologians. Those interested might consult the following.
Bond, E. J. Ethics and Human Wellbeing (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996)
Brown, M. The Quest for Moral Foundations (Washington DC: Georgetown UP, 1996)
Donagan, A. A Theory of Morality (Chicago: Chicago UP, 1977)
Finnis, J. Moral Absolutes: tradition, revision & truth ( Washington DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1991)
Grisez, G. The Way of the Lord Jesus (Quincy, ILL: Franciscan Press, 1983/93/97)
May, W. An Introduction to Moral Theology (Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor, 1991), Ch. 2
McInerny, R. Ethica Thomistica (Washington DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1997)
Shaw, R., ed., Our Sunday Visitor’s Encyclopedia of Catholic Doctrine (Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor, 1997)
Being human is being a free, thinking and loving creature. Human beings operate by reasoning about their problems and this includes reasoning about moral problems. Moral reasoning is just the attempt to discern what will achieve a fully human life and how I might best go about getting this. Moral philosophers and moral theologians are among those with important insights into strategies and techniques for good moral reasoning; but it should be remembered these are not experts prescribing how we must think but people who try to understand how good folk do think, to clarify and explain this and to communicate it to others.
Usually we turn to moral reasoning when we face a moral dilemma. These occur regularly, often frighteningly regularly (Do I tell my friend her boyfriend is seeing someone behind her back? Do I tell the parents their child is using the contraceptive pill? Do I respect my adolescent’s freedom to sleep over with his girlfriend or insist on his following Church teaching? Do I tell the lie my employer / colleague asks me to or do I make this a resignation issue? etc.). These are appallingly difficult issues but there is always an answer: it may well be a sad and difficult answer but there is always a right decision to be made. God does not put us in positions where we are ‘damned if we do and damned if we don’t’. That will never happen. So how do we set about dealing with moral dilemmas?
First, recall that from time to time we will find ourselves in situations where factors (external or internal) mean we are literally incapable of choosing or of making a good choice. These factors include ignorance of relevant information, coercion by others, neuroses, compulsions, obsessions, intoxication, extreme exhaustion, distress, provocation etc. Often this means we are genuinely not responsible for failing to choose or for making a bad choice. However, educators must be aware people sometimes plead these factors falsely and unfairly thus ‘getting themselves off the hook’. Also, sometimes ignorance, intoxication etc. is deliberate and wilful, or the person has been seriously negligent. Here, there may actually be moral responsibility and a case to answer.
But let us assume the person is not suffering from any of these factors but is responsible for her conduct. Let us assume too that she realises there is no substitute for some hard thinking here: we cannot simply open the Bible randomly and pick out an answer, put the responsibility onto someone else, ask how much we can get away with, toss a coin, look inside ourselves and follow our strongest feelings (certainly not that: the stronger the feelings, the more danger we are just doing what we want to!). How can we hope to guide young people’s moral reasoning? Here are some pointers which may be worth following—but once again, this is no ‘rule book’ of morals’. Different people in different situations will quite rightly emphasise one step more than another and all of us come to discover these steps gradually as we mature, and fall, and pick ourselves up, and fall again….
First, in the white heat of a real dilemma there are pressures of conflicting wants and duties, loyalties to different people and beliefs, time pressures and often serious psychological distress. In this state it is easy to overlook relevant facts and other possible alternatives. Many problems become easier to solve if we get accurate scientific, medical or personal facts. In the grip of distress we can become fixated on two choices and overlook the fact there are other alternatives. It is easy too to clutch our dilemmas, sometimes over-dramatising them, and become convinced we are trapped. There is always a way out—though we may need help, peace of mind, a break, hard study to identify it. There is no speedy way to reason morally; we need to slow down and re-trace our steps.
Secondly, consider the moral implications of the situation. Often one of my options will not actually achieve anything humanly good for anyone: it may simply be a matter of my self-gratification, or weakly conforming to peer or institutional pressure or just taking an easy way out. What important values are at stake in each option (fairness, truth-telling, courage, witness, promise-keeping, self-respect, friendship?). Am I directly aiming at undermining some important human value in either option? Would good moral thinkers I know or have read think my ‘ends’ or purposes here are morally acceptable, and are the means I am considering taking to these ends all morally acceptable? If I am not sure, whom should I consult? Moral philosophers and theologians have articulated excellent theories of human ‘goods’ and ‘virtues’ and their relations to real happiness and fulfilment. Have I read and studied enough? Do I need to find out some more about good moral thinking?
Thirdly, consider the likely good and bad effects of the courses of action I am considering. Sometimes we are right to make choices that have bad effects on ourselves or others (and sometimes we are even required to make them) but this demands very serious thinking beforehand. Would it be good for me to permit these bad effects? Might it corrupt me, change me for the worse, incline me to do wrong in the future? And is permitting these bad effects fair to others in this situation? Of course they will not like it; but it may still be fair to ask them to bear it. Or is it unfair? How would choosing this thing fit with my well-chosen long-term goals and commitments? Does it reflect my life plans, my vocation, my special responsibilities to and for others?
Fourthly, ask which moral norms are relevant to my situation. Much of ethics involves considering and applying important norms of moral conduct. It is not enough just to know some human ‘goods’ or values: moral educators must also be competent in the use of the principles and norms which guide us as to how reasonably to pursue these values in the here and now. The greatest teachers in the tradition teach that the fundamental norm is ‘avoid evil; do good’ but of course this must be broken down into many more digestible parts. Some ‘positive norms’ (those which tell us what to do) are quite obvious, based as they are in Scripture, philosophy and common sense: ‘serve others as your moral equals’, ‘teach truth and never lie’, ‘love genuinely and not sentimentally’, ‘do to others as you would have done to you’, ‘give to the poor’ etc. Other norms are ‘negative’ (those which tell us what not to do),. Many of these are ‘absolute’ or ‘exceptionless’, there is never a good reason for breaking them: ‘do not have sex outside marriage’, ‘do not kill the innocent’, ‘tell no lies’, ‘do not do evil to achieve even great good’ etc. Once we have identified the relevant moral norms we might be able to identify certain courses of action as not ethical options for us, not open for our consideration, however attractive they may be.
Fifthly, ask what a truly virtuous person would do in my circumstances. What would those whose characters I most admire do? What would Christ and the saints do? This requires imagination but (especially when we are young) we have imagination and we should use it. These people may seem high above us—and they are! But everyone, under grace, is capable of much more than they believe they are. Sometimes we are called to extraordinary moral heroism and to the suffering that goes along with it. It should not be underestimated, whether it is in the playground or on the Cross, but sometimes it is right to bear it.
Sixthly, if we are still confused, we might now properly ask how we feel about our options? What is it about each that attracts and repels me? Are my feelings here feelings I would happily own up to and wish to defend or are they partial, narrow, self-interested, shameful? Part of good moral reasoning is realising the importance of feelings—what they reveal about where our heart really lies, whichever values we pay lip-service to. Once we are more aware of our feelings and real motives, we can think some more about whether we are being weak or plain indulgent here, or do our feelings reveal important truths about what we hold dear, truths we should acknowledge and respond to? We cannot just ‘do what we feel like’ but if our reasoning so far has ruled out neither option, what we feel like may well guide us to a better knowledge of what is at stake.
If we have gone through moral reasoning of (more or less) the above sort, and we still are undecided, it is probably necessary now to choose and to act. If the matter is serious, we must avoid obsessive thought and mental and moral paralysis and actually choose one way or the other. Here, we should review all our thinking to date—bearing in mind the need to ensure we are challenging ourselves and not just rationalising our secret wishes or fears. We can then take final counsel from those authorities we most respect—bearing in mind the need for great humility before those wiser than us, the best teachers, and of course the teaching of the Church, whether we find it hard or liberating in the present circumstances. Finally, we should rest if possible, and then pray. After that, we should make our choice and act.
The basic structures of moral reasoning—end or purpose, wish, deliberation, choice, action—and the moral concepts necessary for good moral reasoning—human goods, moral principles and norms, virtues and human fullfilment are clarified by many excellent philosophers and theologians. Those interested might consult the following.
Bond, E. J. Ethics and Human Wellbeing (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996)
Brown, M. The Quest for Moral Foundations (Washington DC: Georgetown UP, 1996)
Donagan, A. A Theory of Morality (Chicago: Chicago UP, 1977)
Finnis, J. Moral Absolutes: tradition, revision & truth ( Washington DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1991)
Grisez, G. The Way of the Lord Jesus (Quincy, ILL: Franciscan Press, 1983/93/97)
May, W. An Introduction to Moral Theology (Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor, 1991), Ch. 2
McInerny, R. Ethica Thomistica (Washington DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1997)
Shaw, R., ed., Our Sunday Visitor’s Encyclopedia of Catholic Doctrine (Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor, 1997)
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